Thinking Globally, Acting Locally:

"Our troubled planet can no longer afford the luxury of pursuits confined to an ivory tower. Scholarship has to prove its worth, not on its own terms, but by service to the nation and the world." (Oscar Handlin, as cited in Ernest Boyer's (1994) description of the "New American College")

At the University of Wisconsin, Madison, students built a 21 foot tower of unused student newspapers to encourage student publishers to cut their press runs; devised a "guaranteed ride home" program for any student utilizing mass transit to campus; convinced the librarians to use only recycled paper in the copiers; streamlined the collection and redistribution of chemicals used in campus laboratories to improve recycling and reuse of hazardous materials; and saved the university $50,000 annually by simplifying the paper recycling process (Lerner 1994).

Students at Brown University examined the impact of contamination by lead and other pollutants in low income neighborhoods in Providence, Rhode Island, documenting the extent of health risk to local residents (Enos and Troppe 1996:173-174). As the result of a similar project, the undergraduate chemistry curriculum at Loyola University Chicago was completely reorganized. Student reports on lead contamination are being used by community residents, prompting a greater emphasis in the chemistry course preparation on ethical issues surrounding the use of data provided by the students (Fitch 1997).

An energy management plan for Rochester University in New York was designed by a doctoral student in History. This student worked with other students on campus to audit and inspect energy use on campus, resulting in energy savings of $1.5 million annually. Use of daylight in some buildings allowed artificial lights to be turned off; occupancy sensors are used in offices to activate both lighting and heat/air-conditioning when someone is present, for example, on a weekend or holiday (Pierce 1992).

As part of the "Ecuador Cloud Forest Project," students from universities around the country travel to Ecuador to help the NGO "People Allied for Nature" document the flora and fauna, and to help local residents establish alternative sustainable economic activity to support preservation of the cloud forests from encroaching "economic development" (Becker 1997).

Students across the country are putting paid to current assumptions about student apathy,[1] and are instead putting their skills and knowledge regarding environmental issues to work in the service of local communities - and beyond. According to Collett, "the student movement for an environmentally sustainable future is large, growing, and well organized" (1996:310). These students are "thinking globally, and acting locally" in an immense variety of settings and tasks, contributing not only to environmental protection in the local and global communities, but also to their own education.^[2]

When projects such as these are combined with academic courses on environmental issues - environmental regulation, environmental health, environmental justice, sustainable development - students have an opportunity to combine service to the community with learning about the broader context of environmental politics. Such learning projects, to be discussed in this chapter as "service-learning," are gaining favor across the disciplinary spectrum, from composition to engineering to history and anthropology, and reflect larger national efforts over the past decade to involve students in community service as part of their educational experience. President Bush's National and Community Service Act of 1990 and President Clinton's National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993 have increased the support and attention these programs are now receiving, and the myriad of service-learning programs across American universities continues to grow apace.^[3] The establishment of such organizations as Campus Compact, COOL (Campus Outreach Opportunity League), and Learn and Serve America, among others,^[4] is one indication of the enthusiasm for campus-community interaction. President Clinton's 1994 letter to all college and university presidents - "the first time any president has ever done so for any reason - asking for their help in 'inspiring an ethic of service across our nation'" (Jacoby 1996:17) - further exemplifies the extent of commitment to bridging university goals and community needs.^[5]

The heart of service-learning - and many "definitions" exist (Jacoby 1996; Stanton 1990b) - is to equally emphasize both service and learning in an experiential learning framework, which contributes both to the community and to academic achievement. Service learning goes beyond "volunteerism" to link academic learning with student experience in service to community organizations.^[6] The Preamble to the "Principles of Good Practice in Combining Service and Learning," (see Appendix I) states this objective as follows: "Service, combined with learning, adds value to each and transforms both" (cited in Giles and Eyler 1994:78). The key element in service-learning is the feedback between course content and the experiences the students have in the service context. Thomas Ehrlich, board member of the Corporation for National and Community Service, former chair of the Campus Compact executive committee (Zlotkowski 1996:24), and former President of Indiana University, provided the following encapsulation of service learning at the AAHE's Colloquium on National and Community Service held January 1995:

Community service in the context of academic courses and seminars - often termed 'service-learning' - is valuable for two fundamental and interrelated reasons: 1) service as a form of practical experience enhances learning in all areas of a university's curriculum; and 2) the experience of community service reinforces moral and civic values inherent in serving others (Ehrlich 1995:9; emphasis in original).

As an example, a service learning course in public policy or sociology might focus on issues of poverty, and students could be engaged in service at community homeless shelters. This combination provides an opportunity for students to put a human face on "homelessness," while course readings, class discussions, and course assignments can help the students to widen their understanding of poverty in the larger social and/or policy context.^[7] In the area of "global environmental politics," service learning could bring students into contact with local environmental commissions, local environmental organizations, and similar community efforts to address environmental concerns, while in their coursework, students would read, discuss, and reflect upon the social, economic, and political aspects of environmental degradation, policy responses, and the importance of the resolution of local environmental issues for "global environmental politics."

The promise for service-learning in courses on "global environmental politics" goes beyond academic learning, however. It addresses concerns raised by Maniates (1996) as well as Orr (1992), that environmental education can oftentimes leave students overwhelmed with the complexity of the issues, and feeling unable to "make a difference" by their individual actions. As Maniates suggests, courses which elaborate "detailed analyses of regional and global environmental ills" can simply add "fuel to the fire of a fashionable cynicism about the prospects for meaningful social change" (1996:13). Or worse, as Orr proclaims, "[t]he study of environmental problems [can represent] an exercise in despair unless it is regarded as only a preface to the study, design, and implementation of solutions" (Orr 1992:94; emphasis added). It is to this more optimistic, and empowering, possibility - study, design, and implementation of solutions - that service learning approaches to the teaching of "global environmental politics" are addressed.

Students can learn via their service activities how local communities come together to debate, organize, and commit to small scale or community-wide programs addressing local environmental needs, for example, in establishing a city-wide recycling program or creating more bicycle paths and/or traffic diversion measures. It is in these hands-on experiences that students can come face to face with the benefits and costs of negotiated solutions to shared environmental ills. "Commons" issues are played out in environmental disputes from the local to the global level, and a service learning approach can give students the opportunity to grapple first hand with resistance by community members to "change" as these issues are being addressed. Students likewise hear first hand of the real costs change can incur for some members of the community - for example the potential economic impact on small businesses of reducing traffic flow. These experiences can help students to understand the complexities involved in resolving environmental issues, and inspire them to begin to questions society's - as well as their own - fundamental values regarding the public "goods" which we collectively pursue. By these experiences - and through structured class readings, class discussions, and reflection activities - students can come to understand the value differences underlying environmental disputes at the local level, and thus begin the process of developing an understanding of actors and issues in global environmental politics.

Learning and practicing the skills of political negotiation, sociological insight, economic analysis, and public education regarding local environmental concerns contribute not only to students' appreciation for the complexity of environmental issues; these are also citizenship skills, which can enhance the civic capacity and efficacy of students well beyond their years at the university. The purpose of this essay is to elaborate the methods as well as the rationale for utilizing a service learning approach for "global environmental politics" which will not only involve students in their learning about these issues in a real-life setting, but also contribute to civic education. These real world experiences can be utilized in the classroom to help illuminate patterns of dispute, negotiation, and compromise that are fundamental in democratic societies, and that are also played out at multiple levels in the politics of the global environment. "Thinking globally, acting locally" can also help students to feel empowered to pursue their own, often passionate, desire to "make a difference." The service learning approach to teaching global environmental politics can thus be a tool to help open students' eyes to the complex interplay of values, economics, and political stakes involved in environmental politics, while also providing hands-on experience with devising workable, and acceptable, solutions to at least some aspect of these problems. Service learning not only empowers students to undertake local "action," it also brings the abstract world of international environmental negotiations closer to home, on a smaller, and more approachable, scale.

This essay will first provide a brief background on issues in the reform of undergraduate education, then turn to the pedagogical "whys" and "ways" of utilizing active or experiential learning approaches such as service learning. The chapter will wrap-up with more specific "how-to's" regarding constructing a service learning course to teach global environmental politics, including a prototype syllabus and discussion of how the components of the course contribute to students' academic as well as civic engagement and efficacy.

SERVICE LEARNING AND THE UNIVERSITY IN THE 21ST CENTURY

Arguments in support of more widespread use of service learning across disciplines fall within a larger discourse on the nature of education, learning, and the role of the university in the late 20th Century. Boyer's Scholarship Reconsidered (1990) is but one call for rethinking the role of the academy, to re-"define scholarship in ways that respond more adequately to the urgent new realities both within the academy and beyond" (Boyer 1990:3). Similar efforts to address a "landscape of pervasive change" in higher education (Zlotkowski 1998:2), refer to a period of "intense self-examination, external criticism, and debate regarding basic goals and purposes" of higher education (Stanton 1990a:177). Charles W. Anderson captures the essence of this discussion succinctly: "...we have simply lost track of the overall point of the endeavor."^[8] Service learning proponents make the case that this approach can provide a reorientation of teaching and learning in higher education: "Service learning is the beginning of a movement that could bring coherence and direction to higher education at a time when it is most needed."^[9] Service learning is a form of experiential learning, backed by educational theorists from John Dewey to David Kolb; experiential or active learning is at the heart of proposals from the American Association for Higher Education (AAHE) and the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching for improving - if not "re-inventing" - undergraduate education.^[10] According to Zlotkowski (1998), service learning not only promises, but indeed, already provides a practical paradigm for, "a new model of excellence" in higher education.^[11]

Boyer's (1994) proposal for "Creating the New American College" presents an argument for a reconceptualization of the university in service to the larger community, which aims to bridge the knowledge and skills of the academy with the knowledge and skills needed by the larger society. Boyer, during his tenure as President of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, described the New American College with great poignancy as:

... an institution that celebrates teaching ... while also taking special pride in its capacity to connect thought to action, theory to practice. The New American College would organize cross-disciplinary institutes around pressing social issues. Undergraduates at the college would participate in field projects, relating ideas to real life. Classrooms and laboratories would be extended to include health clinics, youth centers, schools, and government offices. Faculty members would build partnerships with practitioners who would, in turn, come to campus as lecturers and student advisers.

The New American College, as a connected institution, would be committed to improving, in a very intentional way, the human condition (Boyer 1994:A48).

This proposal echoes - as well as foreshadows - discussions regarding the purposes and methods of undergraduate education reform which have swept higher education since the mid-1980s.^[12]

Lee Shulman, who followed Boyer as President of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, expands this vision by asking universities to teach the whole person, and to link teaching and research across disciplinary divides as well as across the many activities of a typical campus, creating a community of inquiry that nourishes those who participate in the process. This "community building," Shulman argues, would enhance student learning outcomes overall:

authentic and enduring learning works best when the processes of activity, reflection, emotion, and collaboration are supported, legitimated, and nurtured within a community or culture that values such experiences and creates many opportunities for them to occur and to be accomplished with success and pleasure... Put another way, this kind of learning can rarely succeed one course at a time. The entire institution must be oriented toward these principles, and the principles must be consistently and regularly employed throughout each course and experience in a program (Shulman 1997/1999; emphasis in original).

The "reinvention of undergraduate education"^[13] which this process would entail, thus leads toward institutional, research, teaching, and learning activities which all contribute both to the larger public good ("service to the nation and the world") as well as to improved undergraduate (and graduate/professional) education. These elements of the New American College include an emphasis on service, and the experiential, collaborative, and multi-disciplinary learning which are inherent in the service learning model.

Service-learning holds within its pedagogical structure the potential to contribute to student learning and competency in mastering specific disciplinary concepts, as well as to the sharpening of students' critical thinking and problem solving skills, while increasing their engagement in their own learning. The literature on service learning also addresses issues of moral development, intellectual development, life-long learning outcomes (love for learning, questioning, creative problem solving), and civic education.^[14] These areas reflect the proposals outlined by McDaniel in his discussion of educational reform, that is, to "focus on graduates as future citizens and to identify the knowledge, skills, and competencies that citizens will need to succeed in a changing world" (McDaniel 1994:30).

In addition to these aspects of the service learning approach, it also clearly meets the criteria set forth in the "Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education," drafted by a task force convened by the AAHE at a Wingspread Conference in 1986 (Gamson 1991).^[15] These principles encourage the following: increased student-faculty contact; cooperation and collaboration among students; active learning; time on task; and a respect for diverse talents and ways of learning, among others. In the sections below, the contribution of service learning to these principles will be more closely delineated: how service learning is built upon a framework of active learning; encourages greater interaction between faculty and students, as well as between students; and how the actual service time emphasizes "time on task." Further, the activities which students can pursue in reflecting on their service encourage students to rely on their diverse strengths and, indeed, to perhaps develop "talents" which might otherwise go untapped in more traditional classroom settings.^[16]

SERVICE LEARNING AS ACTIVE LEARNING

Proponents of active learning draw upon a wealth of research in cognitive psychology to undergird arguments for a student-centered approach in which students are viewed as active participants in acquiring and "owning" their knowledge (Cone and Harris 1996; Hudson 1996; Saltmarsh 1996). This research on "active learning" suggests that cognitive skills are enhanced by active participation in the learning process (Bonwell and Eison 1991; Cantor 1997; Frederick 1989; Savion and Middendorf 1994). Service-learning, as all active learning or experiential learning, requires the student to participate in the learning, and not remain the passive recipient of "knowledge" from outside "experts." In this way, experiential learning draws upon work ranging from Dewey's Experience and Education,^[17] to more recent discussion of learning theory.^[18] These studies indicate that students learn best when they see the relevance of what they are learning to their lives, and when they can link abstract concepts to experiences they have had (Savion and Middendorf 1994; Weinstein and Meyer 1991).

Studies of cognitive development also emphasize the role of motivation in focusing students on their learning, and the importance of utilizing "intrinsic" motivation as opposed to "extrinsic" motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to the students' desire to learn for the satisfaction it can bring to their curiosity or to resolution or understanding of issues of high concern to them; extrinsic motivation is provided by course grades via exams and other assignments to motivate students to "compete" for high grades (Forsyth and McMillan 1991; McDaniel 1994; McMillan and Forsyth 1991). "Empowering students to become more actively involved in their own learning" is one of the goals of service learning (Minter and Schweingruber 1996:92) and this shift to student engagement can both build, and build upon, intrinsic motivation.

Courses in global environmental politics tap into a pervasive concern of students to understand and to "do something" about local or global environmental problems. As mentioned above, and as emphasized by Maniates (1996), instructors' enthusiasm for teaching global environmental politics, while providing comprehensive coverage about the "state of the world" and about current international agreements to stem further environmental degradation, can prove overwhelming to students in one or more ways: students can feel that "experts" are attending to these issues, and that only experts have the knowledge needed to respond to global environmental problems; or that scientific or technical know-how is both necessary and forthcoming, so that the possibility for the actions of individuals, and particularly of students, pales in the face of the highly technocratic nature of needed palliatives; or students may feel that the problems are so complex and so intermingled that any small steps they might consider would simply be dwarfed at best, and of no avail at worst, in alleviating our impact on the global environment. This scenario suggests what instructors of global environmental politics least want to see: dis-empowering students from acting on their concerns about the environment. The active, engaged, experiential model of service learning can, in contrast, build upon students' intrinsic concern regarding environmental issues, and provide them an opportunity to experience the very direct impact of what individuals and local communities can accomplish.^[19]

As students experience the real world consequences of individual and local decisions, they return to the classroom with renewed motivation to understand the conceptual frameworks with which environmental politics can be analyzed. This relating of concrete experience with formerly abstract concepts can contribute not only to student mastery of course concepts, but also to building their self-confidence as they participate in the process of "constructing meaning" from their experiences (Cone and Harris 1996:39). "This orientation is... juxtaposed with the silencing effects of 'expert' knowledge on students" (Minter and Schweingruber 1996:92). Allowing students to construct meaning as opposed to expecting students to "absorb course content" constitutes, according to McDaniel, a "paradigm shift" to be expected in the "college classrooms of the future":

... a college classroom where students are thought of primarily... as individuals to be empowered instead of graded, as responsible associates or colleagues, not as empty pitchers or blank slates, as part of a group that cooperates rather than as individuals who compete, and as intrinsically motivated and talented contributors to a process of education instead of passive receivers of already determined 'content' ... This new role is unfolding especially on campuses where students are...considered competent participants in their own educational development (McDaniel 1994:28).

Changes such as these reflect issues raised by developmental theorists regarding the stages of cognitive and moral development of students. Students need to be challenged to move along the continuum of intellectual development, and will benefit from "nudges" toward independent thinking that active learning techniques encourage.

According to the Perry Scheme of Intellectual Development,^[20] students often begin with a "dualistic" view of knowledge, that is, for them, knowledge consists of "facts, correct theories, and right answers" (Kloss 1994:151). Learning, therefore, is merely a task of having the instructor reveal the truths: teachers "should simply disclose [these truths] instead of making students perform what to them seem senseless tasks" (Kloss 1994:152). The intellectual development of students, as the Perry Scheme describes, then proceeds through the following stages: "multiplicity" in which all knowledge is a matter of opinion, and all opinions are equally valid; "relativism" in which students begin to "weigh evidence and distinguish between weak and strong support" of arguments; and lastly, "commitment" in which students "integrate the relatively objective, removed, and rational procedures of academia with their more empathic and experiential approaches to all other aspects of their lives" (Kloss 1994:152). These stages exemplify a process of intellectual development in which students move from lower order cognitive skills such as memorization of facts, to higher order skills whereby they are able to utilize their knowledge to appraise, critique, judge, interpret, and justify arguments, written material, and creative works of others (DeZure 1996; Lee 1999).^[21]

The use of active learning strategies can help students in this developmental process, challenging them to evaluate evidence and arguments encountered in their service experiences, thus enabling them to construct their own knowledge - which "transform[s] empirical evidence into revised and new knowledge structures" (Lee 1999:4). As students move from stage to stage in this process of development, they will become more confident and capable of "...engag[ing] in inquiry, particularly higher-order critical thinking" (DeZure 1996:3). Use of a service learning approach which takes students out of the "predictable" confines of the classroom and puts them in a much less predictable real world setting will provide the stimulus necessary for independent judgement and assessment of information and arguments from a wide variety of sources. Many of these non-traditional sources of information in the service learning context will be local activists or agency personnel whose years of experience in the field - or the "trenches" - of environmental politics can help them to serve as "experts" whose knowledge complements, expands, and brings new light to materials the students are exposed to in class readings, lectures, and discussions. These multiple sources of "knowledge" may represent, for some students at different phases of the Perry Scheme of development, a very confusing melange, yet together with other students and the instructor, they can learn from their experiences and from each other how to begin to sift through and to "appraise, critique, and judge" this information.

Building on this framework described by the intellectual development theorists, instructors can strive to incorporate "learning experiences that are enjoyable and provide an atmosphere that enhances mastery and student power in the learning process" (McDaniel 1994:28). Such teaching strategies can also help develop student-teacher relationships "that encourage students to take risks, experiment, and rely on their own judgements in classroom discussions and activities" (McDaniel 1994:28). This would counter

the dominant image of students in ... faculty discourse... that [students] are withdrawn, apathetic... [A]n alternative diagnosis suggests that student 'apathy' is a function of their marginality... students believe they have few resources to bring to the educational process. ...[S]ervice learning is an empowering tool that can help bring young people from the margins into the center, giving students both a social purpose and a sense of personal worth in the process of learning itself (Palmer 1993:18).

Shifting from education as "transmission of information" to engaged, experiential modes of teaching and learning can help not only to anchor knowledge - concepts and information - but can also help that knowledge to become usable knowledge. Conrad and Hedin cite, for example, the case of a student engaged in volunteer service with an ambulance crew: "[I]n school you learn chemistry and biology and stuff and then forget it as soon as the test is over. Here you've got to remember because somebody's life depends on it" (as quoted in Conrad and Hedin 1991:74). According to Dewey, "for knowledge to be usable through recall and application, it has to be acquired in a situation; otherwise it is segregated from experience and is forgotten or not available for transfer to new experiences" (Dewey 1938, as discussed in Giles and Eyler 1994:79). Creating links between knowledge and experience is one of the guiding principles in educational reform efforts such as those elaborated by Shulman (1997/1999) and others (Boyer 1994; Coles 1994; Zlotkowski 1996).

Currently, according to Shulman, liberal education is faced with overcoming three main challenges: "the loss of learning, or amnesia ['I forgot it']; the illusion of learning, or illusory understanding ['I thought I understood it']; and the uselessness of learning, or inert ideas ['I understand it but I can't use it']" (Shulman 1997/1999; emphasis in original). He concludes this disheartening scenario with the suggestion that "[i]f we were ever to conduct proper evaluations of the long-term benefits of liberal education, I suspect we would encounter all three of these with painful frequency" (ibid).^[22] The benefits of service learning reside in addressing precisely this conundrum, as explained by Kupiec:

As an educational method, service learning provides students with fertile ground on which to test theories acquired in the classroom and to concretize abstract thought. This active, exploratory dimension ... leads to a deeper grasp of course material. Students develop research, critical thinking and interpersonal skills and come to appreciate the larger social, ethical and environmental implications of knowledge. Agency staff and clients offer expertise and perspectives in addition to those presented in class (1993:7).

The work of David Kolb (1984) on "experiential learning" is often cited in research on service learning, as it captures the process by which experience helps to build knowledge and understanding.^[23] In brief, Kolb's experiential learning cycle involves a process of concrete experience followed by reflective observation about that experience, abstract conceptualization regarding implications or hypotheses which can help explain the experience, and active experimentation, or consideration of "what if?" scenarios based on possible solutions suggested in the abstract conceptualisation phase (Svinicki and Dixon 1987). Stewart describes Kolb's experiential model as follows:

Initiated by an individual's concrete experience, the process moves through a period of reflection on that experience. That reflection stimulates the learner to organize observations about the experience and create concepts around that organization to better understand his or her world. Through that new understanding, individuals find the confidence to experiment actively and thereby enhance their learning. That experimentation leads the individual to revisit the four steps of the cycle beginning with new sets of concrete experiences (Stewart 1990:32).

The learning can begin at any point in the cycle and proceed to the following phases in order for the student to fully benefit from the experiential learning approach. Each phase of the learning cycle contributes to the overall outcome of the experience for the student, however, so it is important to structure opportunities for each phase of activity to occur within the service learning course. The main importance of Kolb's experiential learning model for service learning is to emphasize the multiple processes which service learning creates; it brings attention to the cyclical process of linking concrete experience with abstract thinking and back again to the application of concepts to real world settings.

SERVICE LEARNING IMPLEMENTATION: ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS^[24]

In order for service learning to contribute to "experiential education in which students participate in service in the community and reflect on their involvement in such a way as to gain further understanding of course content and of the discipline and its relationship to social needs and an enhanced sense of civic responsibility" (Hatcher and Bringle 1997:153), several aspects of establishing courses or programs^[25] in service learning must be considered: (1) the roles of faculty and students; (2) course structure and content; (3) course readings and assignments, with especial attention to the role of reflection activities; (4) student assessment; (5) the role of community organizations, with particular attention to the needs of the organization and utilization of the expertise which the organization can bring to course content and student learning; and (6) institutional support issues, such as a community service-learning office on campus which helps to coordinate contacts with community organizations; wider discussion about whether or not the institution as a whole will engage in service to its local community; and provision of faculty development opportunities in the area of service-learning pedagogy.

1. Reconceptualizing the Roles of Faculty and Students

A primary consideration regarding the role of faculty is to reconceptualize the role of the instructor to become that of facilitator, as distinct from a more formal classroom role as lecturer, expertly "delivering information" to students. The role of facilitator brings faculty and students together in the learning process in a manner which emphasizes a student-as-teacher/teacher-as-student relationship.^[26] The instructor does not "abdicate" his or her role as teacher, as Schwerin explains, "[i]n a dialogic classroom a teacher does not abrogate responsibility for student learning, but shifts from being expert to being a facilitator who keeps the class moving, provides resources, and chooses appropriate topics to study" (1998:109). In addition to a shift in faculty roles, students, for their part, may be unfamiliar with immersion in active or experiential learning which will be required of them as part of the course. Indeed, as documented by Hudson (1996), some students may initially be opposed to such required activity - although in the long run "the service experience proved to be one of the most popular aspects of the course" (Hudson 1996:85).^[27] Students have to be brought into the process, which requires incorporating changed roles and expectations for both faculty and students, by re-designing the structure of the course, and rethinking actual classroom practices. As Zivi describes, "both teaching and learning must be transformed" (1997:65).

This shifting of roles is not only suggestive of "transformational" education (Woolpert, Slaton, Schwerin 1998), in which "learning represents a shift of power, control, responsibility [and]... [t]eachers move from using power over students to power with students to achieve mutual learning objectives" (Schwerin 1998:109; emphasis in original). It also supports the recent Boyer Commission report (1998) which proposes - as the first principle by which research universities can "reinvent undergraduate education" - to emphasize "learning ...based on discovery guided by mentoring rather than on transmission of information" (Boyer Commission 1998; emphasis added). Achieving this new model of student-centered universities creates a "synergy," utilizing "inquiry-based learning [with its inherent] element of reciprocity: faculty can learn from students as students are learning from faculty" (Boyer Commission 1998:Part I).

Bringing these complementary roles more to the forefront of the instructor's interaction with the students, can help the students take more responsibility for their own learning. In the context of service learning experiences, the students are developing their own "expertise" on issues and the agencies they are serving. This student "expertise" can contribute to an overall higher quality of class discussion, as well as a higher quality in students' written work - both exams and term papers - as the students become "experts on, at least, a portion of the material discussed in class" (Hudson 1996:88). Allowing students to explore their expertise with other students in discussion, or indeed in teaching a unit within the course on their specific area of expertise, can further enhance student learning, motivation and self-esteem.^[28]

The re-design of courses for service learning thus entails reconsidering the fundamental goals of the course to more clearly articulate both the "what" and the "how" of the learning goals, so that "the process and content [will] enrich and enhance each other" (Schwerin 1998:92). Simply "adding-on" service learning to a previously structured course can create a situation in which training students to learn from their experiences will not be given adequate time and attention. Restructuring a course to provide opportunities to develop these analytical skills can take into account the "intellectual development" process described earlier (both Perry and Bloom schemata), in order to provide increasing challenges to students over the course of the semester.^[29] That is, more structured activities, including lectures, may be included earlier in the semester, while later in the course, students can be expected to handle more open-ended and evaluative assignments.

Zivi (1997), for example, argues forcefully regarding the need for "modelling" learning behavior, that is, for helping students to develop their ability to link readings - which may provide more abstract and theoretical discussion of issues - with the on-site experiences in which they are immersed. She makes the case that faculty must adequately take into account students' need for class discussion and written exercises which will help them to become better observers of the wider implications of the day to day activities in which they participate at the service site. The process of class meetings also needs to become more democratic, which can create unexpected outcomes, such as in this scenario described by Minter and Schweingruber:

...[by] giving students the freedom to explore their experiences on their own and then move to considering the concepts presented in the readings...[s]tudents developed [conceptual] categories that eventually elicited some of the same concepts we were interested in exploring in class, but in a different form than we had first imagined. The difference in form, rather than proving unworkable, led to richer insights for the class as a whole and for us as teachers (1996:100; emphasis in original).

While service learning, according to Conrad and Hedin (1991:745), "counters distancing abstraction of much classroom instruction by placing information in context...; motivates the learner by providing connections between academic content and the problems of real-life; and ... aids in retention of knowledge, as learning is made personal and applied in action," opportunity for and guidance in "meaningfully consider[ing] their service experience in light of the curriculum" is essential (Hatcher and Bringle 1997:153). Hatcher and Bringle continue:

When students contemplate their service activities, there is potential to reformulate assumptions, create new frameworks, and build perceptions that influence future action. However, if students do not think seriously about their service, their experiences may support presuppositions, reinforce stereotypes, and fail to critically guide future action (1997:153; emphasis added).

It is therefore crucial that instructors provide course readings and course structure to enable students to have time to articulate their experiences, get feedback from both the instructor(s) and fellow students, and to reflect on their experiences in light of conceptual frameworks presented in readings and lecture material during the course.^[30]

In a "global environmental politics" course, students may need guidance to help link the local issues to global environmental concerns. Without the combination of readings, discussions, and written exercises in which students can grapple with complex social and economic issues represented in these situations, the students may not be able to link the placement experience with course content (see Cone and Harris 1996; Minter and Schweingruber 1996; Zivi 1997). As Coles argues,

[s]tudents need more opportunity for moral and social reflection on the problems that they have seen at first hand, and such intellectual work would surely strengthen both their academic lives and their lives as volunteers. Students need the chance to directly connect books to experience, ideas and introspection to continuing activity... (Coles 1994:A64).

2. Reconsidering course structure and content

The teaching goals of a service learning course consist of not only the content which will be covered, but also the skills relevant to the discipline, such as research methodology, writing skills, analytical skills, and how the course reflects larger questions being posed within the discipline: Which debates will be reflected in the areas covered by the course? Will students be expected to simply become familiar with the debates themselves, or rather to engage critically with these larger theoretical issues? How will students be expected to master discipline-based theory and content and how will this be integrated with the service experience?^[31] Course structure thus needs to incorporate increasing levels of complexity in factual, conceptual, and skill acquisition, along what Bonwell and Sutherland (1996) call "the active learning continuum."

In my "global environmental politics" courses, I use an analytical framework similar to that presented in Gareth Porter and Janet Welsh Brown's 1996 text, Global Environmental Politics. The course begins with an introduction to the global environmental "problematique" - or "global macrotrends" as Porter and Brown term it - in broad brushstrokes, and then focuses in on actors and their (perceived) needs and bargaining positions (Porter and Brown's Chapter 2). Additional readings which illuminate the multiple viewpoints of actors, from nation-states to the local farmer, help students to grasp the overlapping and often mutually supportive or contradictory stances of the actors at the negotiating table. Students will be experiencing this diversity as they begin to engage with community actors as part of their service placement experience, and thus the opportunity to discuss "in the abstract" the roles of actors in environmental politics can help prepare them for situations they will encounter and enable them to analytically evaluate the dynamics between and among "local actors."

One particularly useful device in illustrating the role of "actors" in global environmental politics is the use of detailed case studies, such as those prepared in the Pew Case Studies in International Affairs (see, for example, Golich and Young 1993). I utilize the "Debt-for-Nature" case in my courses, and find that the specific details of the case bring to life the needs and strategies of national leaders and local groups along with the interaction of international non-governmental organizations (NGOs), indigenous NGOs, and international organizations such as the World Bank. A case such as this exemplifies material presented in the Porter and Brown (or similar) text, while at the same time, provides insight on the number and diversity of "actors" and the multiple "levels" in one specific setting (the debt-for-nature swap negotiation) in which specific debates and decisions impacting the global environment are taking place. Patterns of interactions among divergent actors hold as true for the local community in which the students are serving as for the "local" communities of Bolivia, Costa Rica, and elsewhere discussed in the debt-for-nature case study.

Linking the local "case" with cases unfamiliar to the students can help to bridge the divide between what may seem to the students as "abstract" patterns of actors, and help them to understand that debate, persuasion, and compromise are part of the process of both global and local environmental politics. Students can begin to comprehend that all parties or actors claim a legitimate stake in their position, and students can be encouraged to evaluate the competing claims represented by the various actors. Such case studies can be used to help students identify the different actors among the local stakeholders, and likewise to elaborate the claims made by each actor in the "local case." Students can analyse and evaluate the competing claims of actors in both sets of cases. In this process, students are faced with situations which can draw them into introspection regarding their own values and stances while "nudging" them to develop arguments in defense of their own positions as well as clarifying the nuances of both their own and other actors' viewpoints.^[32]

Gaining an understanding of the actors and their relative position or stance on the environmental debates in question - whether debt-for-nature swap in Bolivia or local park development in Peoria - precedes the ability to analyse the kinds of agreements sought or commonly found in global environmental negotiations. Students, once they have grasped the fundamental starting points of the various actors, can then more easily begin to consider likely acceptable parameters of outcomes, whether in analyzing specific Articles in the Vienna Convention for the Protection the Ozone Layer or legal requirements in a local water pollution ordinance. Students can be urged to contemplate the apparent weaknesses of international environmental treaties - the "study and data collection" aspect of the LRTAP, for example - as opposed to the outcome of such seemingly innocuous or ineffective agreements (the "innocuous" data collection on acid rain damage in Germany and the Netherlands led to public outcry and policy responses going far beyond the original Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Convention provisions.)

Students can compare steps toward these "global" or international agreements, and the provisions they contain, with decisions being made locally: Why isn't more being done sooner? How does the current agreement satisfy the actors? Where are the "openings" for strengthening the agreement in the future? Helping students to understand the trade-offs and potential of smaller-scale agreements of legislation as would be likely to emerge in the local community context, can illustrate the potential for success, failure, or, indeed, unintended consequences in larger scale international level treaties. While the content of local agreements or legislative action may differ markedly from that of international agreements, the process of negotiation and the mechanics of treaty or legislative formulation can be fruitfully compared and contrasted.

As regards specific detail pertaining to each environmental issue typically studied in a global environmental politics course (see Porter and Brown, Chapter 3: biodiversity, ozone layer depletion, toxic waste trade, etc) students should, for example, readily be able to identify, and with guidance, to more clearly understand the impact of the loss of a local wetlands area and its impact on global biodiversity issues, or local emissions control efforts and regional acid rain issues, etc. Over the course of the semester, as students learn more about the dynamics, the actors and processes, of each issue, the links between local issues and global impacts will become more evident across several levels. Students can be challenged to compare and contrast actors' positions, analyse political and economic outcomes (intended or not) of policy proposals being considered (locally or globally), and appraise the cumulative effort of community after community making decisions regarding similar problems and solutions.

The "learning" resulting from the students' ability to see first hand the negotiation of innovative and enabling solutions, and not just enforcement of, on the other hand, punitive legal remedies such as fines for illegal dumping, can contribute to a larger conception of what constitutes "the possible" with respect to resolution of global as well as local environmental problems. Just as debt-for-nature swaps are innovative, but prone to unintended, and occasionally negative, consequences, so too do other innovative responses need to be thoroughly examined for possible false starts or longer-term unintended consequences. Teaching with the goal of helping students understand the broader theoretical frameworks - of actors, negotiations, compromise, and multi-faceted solutions which address the concerns of multiple actors - can provide them with a deeper grasp of "environmental politics" - upon whichever stage it may play itself out.

Students will not easily see the relationships in this theoretical manner between the local process of environmental politics, and the global process of environmental politics (and this is not meant to suggest that no differences exist between the two levels), and thus will need training prior to and during their service experience to continue to build their appreciation of these processes. Students can be offered a "pre-service training and [introduction to] theoretical concepts that the student will be expected to apply and understand in the community" (Cone and Harris 1996:33). This will help to ensure that "key concepts, raised in course readings or lectures, [will be] reinforced through service experiences" (Minter and Schweingruber 1996:92).

The process of participating in these decision networks at the local level can also contribute to students' sense of efficacy and awareness and help them to get a hands-on feeling for the nuts and bolts of citizen activism and the attention to detail required by public education efforts, advocacy and organizing. In developing both conceptual understanding and analytical as well as practical skills, students, and ideally the organizations in which they are serving, will experience empowerment, and a sense of civic competence. If experiential education contributes to "development [which] occurs as individuals strive to come up with more satisfying and complex ways to understand and act on their world" (Conrad and Hedin 1991:745), then providing opportunity to develop skills with which to act upon the world, that is, to "make a difference," is implicit in the service learning approach.

Community involvement in service learning programs can help to develop "skills such as public speaking, recruiting other students, organizing meetings, analyzing problems, developing action plans, and conducting evaluations" (Boyte 1991:767). Skills such as these, as Schwerin describes it, for "transformative" education, are skills that will help illuminate "viable transition strategies, or ... how to get there from here ...[and will] involve capabilities such as ...leadership skills, and ...competencies in conflict-resolution and community organizing... core component[s] of 'political empowerment'" (Schwerin 1998:100; emphasis in original).^[33] But these are not just skills for social change; the Boyer Commission states unequivocally that "[t]he failure of research universities seems most serious in conferring degrees upon inarticulate students," students without the skills of analysis, or the ability to clearly explain complicated materials (Boyer Commission 1998, Part V). More specifically, the report declares:

Many students graduate having accumulated whatever number of courses is required, but still lacking a coherent body of knowledge or any inkling as to how one sort of information might relate to others. And all too often they graduate without knowing how to think logically, write clearly, or speak coherently" (Boyer Commission 1998: An Overview).

The opportunities afforded for students to apply and further develop their "communication" skills in service placement with environmental organizations or agencies can surely address - and diminish - these glaring deficits.

Service learning courses also promote an interdisciplinary approach; indeed, service learning thrives upon utilizing analytical and research skills from a variety of disciplines: "Service learning promotes issue-oriented, interdisciplinary education and engages students in the deliberate, often arduous, process of problem solving" (Kupiec 1993:8). This interdisciplinarity resonates with the challenges and goals of "environmental education" as well. As described by Orr, "[e]ducation for sustainability will ... connect disciplines...;" creating such a "connective education" can help to "restructur[e] the learning environment in order to overcome the centripetal effects of academic specialization" (Orr 1992:137-138).^[34]

This multi- or interdisciplinarity of service learning thus inherently invites a more institutional effort, that is, a greater emphasis across the university to promote interdisciplinary course offerings. Absent this many-faceted institutional approach, the contribution of service learning can nevertheless enhance students' overall competence across disciplines, just by having them see the purpose and use of skills and knowledge from various disciplines in their real-world application. For the service placement with a local environmental organization, for example, students may be asked to develop a handbook for new members, or a manual for the group providing guidelines on how to undertake a local stream monitoring project. Other assignments may require participation in monitoring local air pollution levels or soil contamination measurements. Other needs of the local environmental group may include a survey of local residents, or preparing press releases, or indeed, holding a press conference! This myriad of possible tasks - and there could be countless others - will clearly require skills that may include writing and public speaking, scientific background, organizing, social science skills, sociological insight, and an understanding of the media and local (or beyond) politics. Skills, in other words, from a number of disciplines.

3. Course assignments

Reading assignments are needed which will help the students to link theory and practice - whether they are abstract pieces about civic responsibility which lend themselves to discussion and elaboration,^[35] or selections from field work in similar contexts, or, indeed, in very dissimilar contexts, for example, utilizing examples of environmental NGO activity in other countries, such as the case studies by Princen and Finger (1994), Taylor (1995), and Wapner (1996). Such readings might be used to help illuminate both comparisons and contrasts with the experiences the students are having in their local community. Likewise, readings which illuminate the global implications of ecological disturbance at even the most local level will help students link their local experience with larger trends. Thinking of the service placements and students' experiences as a "text" of the course can help instructors to incorporate the experiential dimension into clear learning outcomes (Cone and Harris 1996:33; see also Zivi 1997).

More general theoretical readings for contemplation might include essays which raise the related issues of "community" and "sovereignty" in a manner which would inspire student discussion on the meaning of these concepts in light of the "global commons" shared by all inhabitants on this planet. Short stories, vignettes, or challenging philosophical pieces could be used to create introspection on our shared - yet often unexamined - definition of community, and whether "membership" in one community impairs belonging to other communities: how does the local community "fit" in a schematic which includes nations, regional organizations such as the European Union, and international organizations such as the UN, and indeed "global institutions" of which perhaps as yet there are no concrete examples to cite? Likewise, a few examples of perforated sovereignty, such as the impact of the internet, or drug trade, arms smuggling, etc. on national sovereignty, can problematize students' awareness of "sovereignty" and provoke a more textured argument regarding the meaning and necessity of sovereignty in a world which is rapidly "globalizing." Barber's "Jihad vs. McWorld" essay in the Atlantic Monthly (March 1992) is the type of provocative essay that might be assigned for this introspective process.

In order to stir students to consider what, after all, "governance" means, and, further, to contemplate whether the roles of governing institutions are best met at the local, national, regional, or international levels, I begin each semester with a class discussion on the "pros and cons" of global governance. Students are asked to list the areas in which governance is most effective at the local level and which areas of governance might be best handled at a much higher level, if not globally. As students enumerate the tasks of governance and the potential benefits or pitfalls of each level of governing institutions, core issues of what constitutes "community" and "nationality" are raised. This exercise invariably raises two sorts of conclusions: problems such as language and cultural differences and, for example, "global" campaign finance reform, seem insurmountable at the global level; on the other hand, if all inhabitants of the planet considered themselves members of the same community, the possibility would be increased that we would pool our resources to work toward resolution of common problems, including environmental degradation. This exercise takes students away from their familiar assumptions about the meaning of community, and of nation-states, and throws a new light on the concept of sovereignty. These core concepts for the study of global environmental politics can be used to analyse the local "community" and its "sovereignty" relative to protection of environmental resources. Discussion of these core concepts also provides a "modelling" of linking abstract concepts such as these to students' everyday experience of community and their everyday sense of governance.

The trajectory of the course itself will need to include time for discussion and reflection, if students are to learn and practice the skills of linking theory to practice. Conrad and Hedin's study of students in a number of service learning programs confirms the importance of the reflection activity: "the presence of a reflective seminar was the one program feature that made a clear difference - particularly with respect to intellectual and social dimensions of development" (1991:747). Giving voice to their experiences and having them validated creates a dynamic by which students construct their own knowledge:^[36]

Reflection encourages critical thinking about the systematic and underlying issues which cause society's problems... Reflection promotes 'knowing,' which involves the whole of a person - their senses, the intellect, their memories, their emotions, their beliefs, their fears, and their intuition. Knowing is creative. Creativity is simply the ability to see how things from one context fit into another. Knowing is an act that involves conceiving the connection between ourselves and the world in which we live (Cooper 1996).

Several types of reflective activities are possible, and many of them can be prepared outside of class, for example, journals or logs of student experiences. Other reflection activities can make use of small group discussions, oral presentations by students regarding their experiences, or indeed, creative activities, such as preparing a video documentary, writing a play or short story, or creating an art work representing the student's experience in a way that can be shared with others (Cooper 1996; Morton 1993).

Research papers can be used in service learning courses, in which students bring to bear their on-site experiences with larger issues or more detailed study of the agency, its role, its client population, its record of effectiveness, etc (Cooper 1996). Student term papers which draw "on the experiences unique to the writers" reflect "a genuine commitment to what was written and a desire to communicate about the service experience," according to veteran service learning instructor William Hudson (1996:90). He further enthusiastically describes how the service experience, "along with empowering students as 'experts' in class discussion, ...[also] helped them to write better papers and exams, by empowering them to claim ownership of their own words" (ibid.). Use of a research paper to investigate the context of the community organization, can also be especially useful when the service component of a course is optional, as this research project can be developed by non-participants in the service activity as a complement to the actual service activity of other students in the course (Enos and Troppe 1996). Hatcher and Bringle also suggest "an experiential research paper" which can "identify a social issue confronted during the service experience, and, informed by a literature review, [can also] include recommended strategies to address the... issue (1997:155).

In the sample syllabus in the appendix to this chapter, the reflection and course assignment activities include journaling, interviews with agency staff, and preparation for a campus event with members of the local environmental organizations and/or agencies as panel members. These assignments are designed to help the students to structure their learning in various ways, with the journal allowing wide latitude to explore feelings, response to events at the site, and evaluation of contradictions or complex situations they have witnessed or participated in. The interviews invite students to learn directly from the agency staff with whom they are interacting in the service assignment, and to learn the skills of obtaining information in this manner. The campus event requires team effort, and skill development in terms of organizing the various components of a public event. The students will have to work collaboratively to conceptualize how the event can best be structured to achieve their purposes.

4. Student assessment

Assessment in service learning courses is not based on service, per se; rather "students are graded ... on their reflections on that service and their ability to relate it to the subject matter of the course" (Hudson 1996:84). Assessment of student work can reflect what McDaniel refers to as "authentic assessment" in which student outcomes are evaluated in a multidimensional manner: "The concept of authentic assessment suggests that we replace pencil and paper tests ...with the direct products of student academic work. ... Authentic assessment is easily found in the practical arts such as engineering, ...etc. and in the performing arts" (1994:29-30). In a service learning course, the "portfolio" approach described by McDaniel could be the actual project created by the student for the agency: whether news articles; surveys; handbooks, etc., or a presentation, evaluation and analysis of the activities of the organization. Student assessment does need to be carefully calibrated to the link between the service and the course concepts, as Zivi (1997) explains, since if the assessment continues to emphasize student grasp of the readings alone, an important opportunity for student learning will be by-passed.

The "Principles of Good Practice for Assessing Student Learning" developed by the AAHE stress the importance of utilizing an array of assessment techniques, in an ongoing assessment process. Most importantly, the principles state that "assessment is most effective when it reflects an understanding of learning as multidimensional, integrated and revealed in performance over time" (Kupiec 1993:137). The use of reflection journals, small group discussion, oral presentations, and the actual product of the student's contribution to the organization will provide multi-faceted aspects of student performance which can be assessed, and can be designed to increase in complexity over the course of the semester. For example, Cone and Harris (1996:43) provide a list of suggested journal questions that can be used over an eight week period. The questions for week one prompt descriptive presentations of the student's experiences, while the later questions elicit evaluative responses, for example, "what is the significance of [the situation] you have described?" The questions for week eight are entitled "critique," and are designed to engage the student in discussion of "what was learned by both you and the person(s) with whom you worked?"

5. Role of community organizations

It is important that the organization being "served" play an integral role in defining the needs which will be "served." This makes the community organization truly a partner whose needs should be delineated prior to the placements. This process of working together with the community organization in effect shares the "expertise" of the local community with the university (Ansley and Gaventa 1997), and local leaders, organization members, and non-student volunteers become resources that can enhance the course content for both students and the faculty member(s) involved. This inclusion of community expertise can also help to undercut the tendency, as Orr describes it "to dismiss or ignore altogether" "nonprofessional knowledge" (Orr 1994:101).^[37]

It is important for the success of the service learning placements, for both the instructor and for the students, to select appropriate agencies or organizations in the local community and to discuss with them their needs in order to determine which specific organizations will be the most appropriate to achieving the goals and objectives of the course. The projects to be undertaken by the students should be discussed and designed in advance with the leaders of the organization, although this could be in broad strokes, leaving specific details to be worked out in conjunction with the actual student(s) who will be assigned to work with the organization. Designing projects and articulating expectations in advance creates an atmosphere that will enhance the service and the learning experience of the students. Veterans of service learning teaching emphasize the importance of familiarity with the specific sites selected (Minter and Schweingruber 1996), and the applicability of the sites for providing experience which will illuminate course concepts and content (Zivi 1997).

Having a community service learning office on campus to assist this process can provide benefits to both the instructor (Hudson 1996) as well as to the agency (Cotton and Stanton 1990). Given the potential long-term benefit of on-going relationships between the university and the agencies, it is imperative that the agencies being served "acknowledge the limitations of students' time and skills... think through how they will use students effectively and who in the agency will provide necessary training and supervision" (Cotton and Stanton 1990:103). A campus office which works with instructors and local organizations or agencies over time can be of invaluable assistance in reducing the time commitment necessary for instructors to incorporate placement activities into their courses.

5. Institutional considerations

Service learning can be offered in a number of formats (see Barber and Battistoni 1993; Indiana University Center n.d.; Kupiec 1993), from individual or team assignments in the context of a course, to a class project, in which all students in a course participate in a service project with the same organization for the duration of the course semester, or as a departmental or institutional commitment to provide service over time to the local community. Other aspects can range from being a requirement for graduation, as proposed recently by the governor of California to the University of California Board of Regents (Ma 1999),^[38] to being offered as a "fourth credit" option, that is, as an add-on to particular courses (Enos and Troppe 1996). This latter can provide students the ability to encourage faculty to begin to develop service options for their courses. That is, if students desire to add a service component in a course in which no opportunity for service is offered, it can be the students who take the initiative and propose that - for the "fourth credit" - a faculty member provide guidance for the student(s) to link a service project to the course. This can have the added benefit of allowing faculty new to the concept of service learning to experience the service aspect with a small number of students in the fourth credit component, and thereby become more familiar with service learning frameworks and options that could be used in future courses (Enos and Troppe 1996). Credit, it is to be emphasized, is "not a 'reward' for ... 'voluntary' service; it is an acknowledgement of academic work ...undertaken and successfully executed" based on the requirements for the course (Barber and Battistoni 1993:237).

Bringle and Hatcher (1996) as well as Cotton and Stanton (1990) provide a thorough overview of how the roles of students, faculty, and community organizations emerge and are nourished by institutional structures. Bringle and Hatcher's "Comprehensive Action Plan for Service Learning" identifies steps in the processes of "awareness [building], planning, prototype, support, expansion, and evaluation" of service learning (1996:223). Faculty involvement, and indeed faculty development in the pedagogy of service learning, needs to be proffered to involve faculty in re-designing courses, as well as in discussion of curricular changes (Bringle and Hatcher 1995; Bringle and Hatcher 1996:227-231). This can be accomplished with a variety of activities, including presentations by faculty already utilizing service learning approaches in their classes, provision of prototype course descriptions, establishing mentoring relationships among faculty, and faculty awards which recognize service. Specific activities which the university can undertake in preparing faculty to consider service learning include workshops on experiential learning and on using reflection as an element of service learning courses, and building partnerships with community organizations.

Students, on the other hand, are according to Hatcher and Bringle (1996:231) in a "paradoxical" situation, as many students are already engaged in volunteer activities with campus or off-campus organizations. They suggest that in order to involve students in planning for and implementing service learning, surveys of current student participation in volunteer activities as well as surveys of student attitudes toward service should be undertaken in the planning phase. Students should be identified who would like to contribute to planning and advisory aspects of implementing service learning, along with students who would like to participate in prototype service learning courses. To keep student interest high, a broad range of service learning courses should be offered, and students should be invited to help develop as well as to assist the teaching of service learning courses (for students with prior experience in service learning courses) (Hatcher and Bringle 1996:232-233; see also Cone and Harris 1996; and Wagner 1990).^[39] According to Barber and Battistoni, "in the long run only those programs that draw students in at the very outset of the planning process and engage them in every step of development will be truly successful" (1993:238).

SERVICE LEARNING AS ECOLOGICAL EDUCATION

Engagement of students with local environmental issues and organizations creates a process of environmental education that links students' skills and knowledge with the specific needs and particular characteristics of the local ecosystem, as well as with the local political and economic community. Student involvement with "local elders" exposes them to a knowledge base that cannot be found in any textbook, yet which goes beyond providing mere accumulation of details, to more of a "thick description" of the local situation. From these interactions, students have an opportunity to absorb "lessons" of ecological education such as those enumerated by Smith and Williams:

- Development of personal affinity with the earth through practical experiences...and through the practice of an ethic of care...

- Induction ...into an experience of community that counters the press toward individualism that is dominant in contemporary social and economic experiences

- Acquisition of practical skills needed to regenerate human and natural environments...

- Preparation for work as activists able to negotiate local, regional and national governmental structures in an effort to adopt policies that support social justice and ecological sustainability [and]

- Critique of cultural assumptions... (1999:6-7).

There are innumerable contexts in which such knowledge can be acquired; the service learning approach seems more than appropriate as a method which contributes to such "ecological education in action" as proposed by Smith and Williams, and others, such as David Orr and C.A. Bowers.

Service learning can be integrated in courses across the curriculum in much the same way as "greening" of courses can occur from natural sciences, to social sciences, and humanities. Especially as colleges and universities are "greening the curriculum,"^[40] it may be a particularly auspicious time to link environmental and service learning courses to help stem Orr's dismal assessment that "we are still educating the young as if there were no planetary emergency" (Orr 1996:9). Below (Appendix 2) is one suggestion as to how the components of service learning and "teaching global environmental politics" can be brought together. The course is an attempt to reflect Boyer's call for a "scholarship of engagement":

At one level, the scholarship of engagement means connecting the rich resources of the university to our most pressing social, civic, and ethical problems, to our children, ... to our cities... Campuses should be viewed by both students and professors not as isolated islands, but as staging grounds for action.^[41]

Appendix 1: Principles of Good Practice That Combine Service and Learning

[Developed at a Wingspread Conference, "sponsored by the Johnson Foundation and a number of national organizations, including the National Society for Internships and Experiential Education, American Association for Higher Education, Campus Compact..." (Rubin 1990:117)] (Reprinted in Mintz and Hesser 1996:41-43)

1. An effective service-learning program engages people in responsible and challenging actions for the common good.

2. An effective service-learning program provides structured opportunities for people to reflect critically on their service experience.

3. An effective service-learning program articulates clear service and learning goals for everyone involved.

4. An effective service-learning program allows for those with needs to define those needs.

5. An effective service-learning program clarifies the responsibilities of each person and organization involved.

6. An effective service-learning program matches service providers and service needs through a process that recognizes changing circumstances.

7. An effective service-learning program expects genuine, active, and sustained organizational commitment.

8. An effective service-learning program includes training, supervision, monitoring, support, recognition, and evaluation to meet service-learning goals.

9. An effective service-learning program ensures that the time commitment for service learning is flexible, appropriate, and in the best interests of all involved.

10. An effective service-learning program is committed to program participation by and with diverse populations.

Appendix 2: Sample Service Learning Syllabus

THINKING GLOBALLY, ACTING LOCALLY

COURSE OVERVIEW

This course is an introduction to the global politics of international environmental issues: global warming, ozone layer depletion, rainforest destruction, and acid rain, among others. We will investigate the underlying causes for these problems, and examine the efforts and institutions of the international community to resolve these issues in a fair and effective manner. We will examine the role of local communities, nation-states, international organizations, and non-governmental organizations engaged in scientific, economic and political debates regarding environmental policies.

We will work with organizations in the local Bloomington community to provide insight into how decisions made at the local level can contribute to global environmental protection. We will aim to better understand the complex choices policy-makers face in developing solutions to local environmental problems: How are members of our local community responding to local environmental problems? Do these activities contribute to protection of the global environment? Can we really "think globally and act locally"?

"Thinking globally, acting locally" expresses the environmental reality that the impact of our daily activities can extend well beyond our local community to have global repercussions. In this course, we will study ecological interdependence, that is, the relationship between the local and global environment, whether it concerns air, water, or land and forestry issues. Our goal is to understand how citizens engaged in addressing environmental issues at the local level, whether through tree-planting, use of solar water heaters, or in designing bike paths for local traffic flow, are contributing to reducing our impact on global environmental resources.

As a service learning course, students will have an opportunity to work with local environmental organizations, and to develop an appreciation of the role of citizens in bringing new ideas into policy debates and community choices about how our lives will impact the environment. Students will select from a small number of local organizations, and will work in small groups of 3-5 assisting each agency. Tasks to be undertaken by the students for each agency or organization will be determined in consultation between the instructor, the students, and representatives of the organization or agency. Suggested organizations include the following:

Audubon Society - "Audubon Adventures School Program"

This program involves activities in local schools to engage younger students in learning about the environment in their own "backyard."

Bloomington Rainforest Action Group

This organization is linked to sister organizations in areas of the world in which tropical rainforests are threatened by unsustainable logging or agricultural practices. Students will learn about these issues, and about the work of organizations such as BRAG, which bring concerned citizens from around the world together to address problems of concern to all.

Citizens Opposed to PCB Ash

This is a group of local homeowners and community residents who are engaged with the City and County governments to resolve the disposal of PCBs deposited in Bloomington landfills. Students will have the opportunity to assist EPA representatives, local government officials, as well as concerned citizens in their scientific, policy, and economic impact research on various solutions to this problem.

Environmental Commission

This volunteer commission helps local government to study and report on issues from land use, zoning, and recreation in Bloomington, to the Lake Monroe watershed, and its importance to the provision of safe drinking water to the residents of the area.

Habitat for Humanity

This organization works to provide housing for indigent residents of Bloomington. The residences being constructed can use materials and designs to reduce energy and water use, thereby providing model housing units which not only save on expenses for the occupants, but also help to decrease the use of natural resources in energy consumption, etc.

Heartwood

This organization is a member of a regional group focused on protection of forest resources. The group works to support alternative forest management techniques, and to diminish the impact of clear-cutting practices, while addressing the economic impact of changing patterns of use of Indiana's woodland resources.

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Students will be responsible for completing their commitment to the organization they have selected. This commitment involves the time they have agreed to spend with members of the organization, and the project or duties they will perform for the organization.

2. Students will keep a journal to document their experiences and reflections during the course of their interactions with the organization. Questions, contradictions, successes, and ethical debates can be discussed in the informal journal format. Journals will be "graded" regularly during the semester, and will provide the basis for individual sessions with the instructor, for group meetings with other students working with the same organization, and for larger class discussions of general interest.

3. A midterm quiz will cover material from the assigned readings, guest lecturers, class discussions, and/or videos presented during class meetings. Understanding the contribution of environmental movements throughout the 20th Century is important in helping students to appreciate the contribution of contemporary environmental organizations. This broader historical context provides a perspective on the nature and role of citizen participation in environmental governance, and the potential for future service at either local, national, or global levels.

4. Students will be required to prepare interview questions, and to interview members of the organization with which they are working. Students will be required to interview a member of the commission or organization about its goals, the kinds of policy recommendations the organization supports or advocates, and the extent to which the organization's efforts have an impact on local, national, and/or international issues. Class instruction will be provided in assisting students to develop an appropriate interview instrument, and in role-playing interview techniques. Students will prepare a brief oral presentation on their interview to the class.

5. Students will invite members of the organizations to a panel discussion on campus. This meeting can be scheduled as part of Earth Day activities at IU during April. Students will be responsible for deciding how the panel should be structured, for example, as a debate or a series of presentations by different organization representatives, or a mainly audience question and answer style, etc. Students may work independently or in groups to invite the participants, and will be responsible for making arrangements, including publicity, for the campus event.

6. A final evaluative essay will allow students to reflect on their experiences, and to develop an awareness of the place of environmental activism in the late 20th Century.

The essay should include an introduction, which clearly describes the main issue or issues facing the local group with which they were placed, and discuss the reasons why solutions to the issue are difficult to develop. What level of government is responsible for responding to this problem? The body of the essay will analyze the political difficulty of resolving these issues (oftentimes the trade-off between economic growth and environmental protection). What choices do local, state, national, or international levels of governments face when trying to resolve these issues? Have different policies succeeded or failed? Why? The conclusion of each essay should address the kinds of political solutions that the student believes might realistically help to resolve the problem. What choices will be required by the community - local, national, international - to implement this solution? What costs are involved? What benefits? What are the reasons that explain why local, national, or international governing bodies have not yet implemented such solutions?

GRADING

1. Service commitment 20%

2. Midterm quiz 20%

3. Student journal 20%

4. Interview 10%

5. Panel organization 10%

6. Final evaluative essay 20%

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[1] Students are not only engaged in environmental activities, but as documented by Senator Kennedy, "[a]ccording to a recent poll, 90% of 14- to 17-year-olds who had been asked to volunteer did so. We do not have to compel young people to become involved in community service. All we have to do is ask - and provide the opportunity" (Kennedy 1991:772).

^[2] For excellent examples of projects involving students, see Eagan and Orr (1992); Lerner (1994); National Wildlife Federation; Orr (1999).

^[3] Examples of service learning courses and programs are discussed in Battistoni and Hudson (1997), Kendall (1990); Kupiec (1993); and Jacoby, et al. (1996); Markus, Howard and King (1993). The AAHE's Series on Service Learning in the Disciplines (Washington, DC: AAHE, 1997), edited by Edward Zlotkowski, currently covers 18 disciplines, from Accounting to Women's Studies.

^[4] For these and other examples, see Gray, et al. (1999); Jacoby (1996); Kahne and Westheimer (1996); Kendall, et al. (1990); Kupiec (1993); Markus, Howard and King (1993).

^[5] See also an adapted version of Thomas Ehrlich's keynote address at the AAHE conference convened January 1995, in response to President Clinton's invitation (Ehrlich 1995).

^[6] Giles, Honnet, and Migliore describe the differences this way: "One of the characteristics of service-learning that distinguishes it from volunteerism is its balance between the act of community service by participants and reflection on that act in order both to provide better service and to enhance the participants' own learning" (as cited in Minter and Schweingruber (1996:92). Barber and Battistoni (1993) discuss volunteerism vs civic duty as one of their "ten crucial choices" regarding instituting a service learning program. See also Boyte (1991); Kahne and Westheimer (1996); Lisman (1998); Zlotkowski (1996) regarding the larger debate/discussion on "volunteerism" vs. "service."

^[7] See syllabus for "Homelessness and Public Policy" in Kupiec (1993:161-165). Kupiec (1993) also includes syllabi for service learning courses on "The Civic Community, HIV and Public Policy," and "To Feed the World," among several others. See also Hudson (1996), Minter and Schweingruber (1996), and Zivi (1997) for further detailed examples of courses utilizing the service learning approach.

^[8] From Anderson's Prescribing the Life of the Mind (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), as cited in Coye (1997:21).

^[9] R. Eugene Rice, in the "Foreword" to Zlotkowski (1998), p. xi.

^[10] See, for example, Boyer Commission (1998); Coye (1997); Ehrlich (1995); Shulman (1997/1999); Zlotkowski, ed. (1997-).

^[11] As Zlotkowski notes, the phrase, "a new model of excellence," comes from Boyer (1994).

^[12] See Boyer (1990); Bringle, Games, and Malloy (1999); Coye (1997); Delve, Mintz, and Stewart, eds. (1990); Jacoby (1996); McDaniel (1994); Zlotkowski (1996).

^[14] On the role of service learning in civic education, see Barber (1992); Barber and Battistoni (1993); Delve, Mintz, Stewart, eds. (1990); Eyler and Giles (1999); Hudson and Battistoni (1997); Lisman (1998); Reeher and Cammarano (1997).

^[15] Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education (Chickering 1989) [Developed at a Wingspread conference of leaders in higher education, and originally published in Chickering and Gamson (1987)]:

Principle 1. Good Practice Encourages Student-Faculty Contact.

Principle 2. Good Practice Encourages Cooperation Among Students.

Principle 3. Good Practice Encourages Active Learning.

Principle 4. Good Practice Gives Prompt Feedback.

Principle 5. Good Practice Emphasizes Time on Task.

Principle 6. Good Practice Communicates High Expectations.

Principle 7. Good Practice Respects Diverse Talents and Ways of Learning.

^[16] Blythe, White and Gardner (1995) describe in their brief booklet some of the main implications of Gardner's "multiple intelligences," which include: linguistic; logical-mathematical; musical; spatial; bodily-kinesthetic; interpersonal; and intrapersonal intelligences. Most tasks associated with traditional classroom learning and teaching methods privilege only some of the styles of intelligence. Service learning and other experiential methods of teaching and learning can draw out student abilities in the different areas in which they have strengths, "intelligences" not often rewarded in academic settings.

^[17] As discussed in Giles and Eyler (1994) and in Saltmarsh (1996).

^[18] See Frederick (1989); McKeachie, et al. (1994); Svinicki (1991); Weinstein and Meyer (1991).

^[19] The potential for an "incapacitating effect" occurs not only for students of environmental policy, but, in the study of other policy issues as well, such as those noted by Stanton: "...peace in the face of growing gaps between rich and poor nations, nuclear proliferation, equal opportunity for and effective integration of minority populations, poverty, and economic instability are very complex and deeply engrained in our social fabric.... They do not appear to be resolvable by experts alone. To many people they do not appear to be resolvable at all" (1990a:177).

^[20] See Kloss (1994) and Delve, Mintz and Stewart (1990) for more detailed overviews of the Perry Scheme of development.

^[21] As described by Bloom's Taxonomy. See a detailed outline of "The Six Major Levels of Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain" in the on-line version of Lee (1999) at [http://www.ntlf.com]. See discussion of Bloom's Taxonomy also in Bonwell and Sutherland (1996) and DeZure (1996:2).

^[22] Shulman continues his discussion with the following scenario: a "video that begins with graduating students at a Harvard commencement being asked two questions by faculty: why do we have seasons and what accounts for the phases of the moon? In every case the respondent replied with great confidence. With little hesitation, and very few exceptions, respondents offered a similar theory of the seasons. They explained that we had summer when the elliptical orbit of the earth brought it closer to the sun, and winter when we were further away... Here were well-educated students, many of whom had taken courses in the sciences, including astronomy and astrophysics, who were confidently expounding quite misconceived theories of how the solar system functioned." Similar gaps in fundamental knowledge (Shulman's amnesia or illusory understanding) are cited by Orr in a "test of bioregional knowledge" consisting of such questions as 'name five native edible plants in your region and their seasons of availability' or 'where does your garbage go?' (Orr 1992:137). A similar experiment was devised by Smith-Sebasto for the first-day exercise in a course on "General Ecology." Smith-Sebasto asked students "if they could take me out to the campus nature trail and point out a beech tree... Not one hand went up." The exercise continued with the question "'how many of you could take me outside and tell me when you hear a robin singing?' Not one hand went up" (Smith-Sebasto 1997:282).

^[23] See discussion of Kolb's model in Bringle and Hatcher (1995); Cone and Harris (1996); Fishel and Segal (1998); Giles and Eyler (1994); Hatcher and Bringle (1997); Jacoby (1996); McEwen (1996); Rubin (1990); Stewart (1990); Svinicki and Dixon (1987).

^[24] Barber and Battistoni (1993:236) outline several areas of concern in consideration of implementing community service-learning programs. Their thorough discussion covers the following main points:

1. Should service be education-based or extracurricular?

2. Should it be mandatory or voluntary?

3. Should it be civic or philanthropic?

4. Should it be for credit or not?

5. Should it be offered as a single course or as a multi-course program?

6. Should the community be a "client" or a "partner in education"?

7. Should students serve in group teams or as individuals?

8. Should the faculty also do community service?

9. Should the pedagogy of service emphasize patriotism and citizenship or critical thinking?

10. Should students participate in the planning process?

^[25] Although this chapter is intended to discuss service learning courses, other university-based programs can offer similar experiences for students, contributing to the same goals and similar outcomes. See especially discussions in Kupiec (1993) regarding alternative structures for offering service learning opportunities.

^[26] Saltmarsh (1996:14) provides quotes from both Dewey and Friere which suggest this dual role: "Friere notes that 'through dialogue, the teacher-of-the-students and the students-of-the-teacher cease to exist and a new term emerges: teacher-students with students-teachers'" (Paolo Friere, Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum: 1970, p 61). In drawing the similarity between Friere's and Dewey's work, Saltmarsh cites Dewey: "In such shared activity the teacher is a learner, and the learner is, without knowing it, a teacher..." (John Dewey, Democracy and Education, in The Middle Works of John Dewey, Volume 9. Edited by Jo Ann Boydston. Carbondale: Southern Illinois Press, 1976-1983, p.167).

^[27] For an excellent discussion in implementing a more engaged course structure, see Fishel and Segal (1998) and Schwerin (1998). Further discussion of structuring classroom settings to involve students in their learning include Billson and Tiberius (1991) and Tiberius and Billson (1991).

^[28] As Wagner argues, the student "experts" can benefit from being able to "not only take a course in urban society, but [to] teach a unit within that course about urban poverty" (Wagner 1990:51; emphasis added).

^[29] For discussion of these issues, see footnote 21 above and accompanying text. See also Kloss (1994); Lee (1999); Miller, Groccia, and Wilkes (1996).

^[30] See the course syllabi reproduced in Kupiec (1993) for detailed descriptions of course assignments.

^[31] Bonwell and Sutherland list several questions to consider in determining course objectives: "What do I want my students to know (knowledge)?" "What do I want students to be able to do (skills)?" "What do I want my students to feel (attitudes)?" (1996:6-7).

^[32] Schultz (1990:96-97) discusses the impact of being exposed to "new cultures and needs" as contributing to students' "values education."

^[33] Smith (1999) also discusses education for learning "how" to undertake transformative action in the context of nonformal adult educational settings such as the Highlander Research and Education Center in New Market, Tennessee. The Center "has for more than half a century offered leadership training seminars for community activists in the labor, civil rights, and now environmental movements, providing people with conceptual and organizing skills needed..." (215; emphasis added).

^[34] Orr outlines the potential for integrating an environmental focus into courses across the discipline, referring to a "cross fertilization [of other disciplines] with ecology" (1992:135). See his discussion in Chapter 9 Ecological Literacy (1992) and Chapter 14 Earth in Mind (1994) on linking the disciplines with an ecological focus. See also excellent presentations of Greening the College Curriculum by Collett and Karakashian, eds. (1996).

^[35] Readers such as Barber and Battistoni, eds. (1993) and Albert (1994) contain a wide diversity of reflective pieces, such as Katherine Mansfield's short story, "The Garden Party," as well as William James' "The Moral Equivalent of War," among Barber and Battistoni's selections; and "Why Care about Caring? The Fundamental Nature of Caring" by Nel Noddings and "Landing on the Moon" by Deepak Chopra in Albert's compilation. Ehrlich (1995) mentions using Hawthorne's short story, "The Snow Image," in his class on "Altruism, Philanthropy, and Public Service."

^[36] See Lee (1999), Saltmarsh (1996), and Wagner (1990) for discussion of students "constructing knowledge."

^[37] Respect for local community "expertise" also is reminiscent of the need, often cited in discussions of environmental education, to respect and include "indigenous" cultural knowledge along with scientific and technical approaches to environmental problem-solving. As Bowen discusses, "teachers need to be able to help students recover the community of memory stored in the stories told by previous generations - stories that embody what they learned about human/nature relationships ... Learning the stories and mythopoetic narratives of earlier cultures that inhabited the land is ...important to acquiring a knowledge of place" (Bowen 1999:166). Likewise, Cajete espouses a more "indigenous" basis of environmental education, "... the kind of environmental teaching and learning indigenous peoples around the world have been applying for thousands of years" (Cajete 1999:189).

^[38] See also extended discussion on the pros and cons of mandatory service requirements in Barber and Battistoni (1993:236-237).

^[39] This would contribute to Boyte's concerns regarding the contribution of service learning to development of student advocacy skills; and would contribute to "helping students construct knowledge through teaching and research" (Wagner 1990). For discussion of student implementation of service learning on the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill campus, see Schwartz (1999).

^[41] Cited in Glassick (1999:29). Glassick notes that Boyer "finished his later speeches with this commentary." See also Boyer (1996).